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World News
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Title: Gore: U.S. Climate Bill Will Help Bring About 'Global Governance'
Source: [None]
URL Source: http://www.climatedepot.com/a/1893/ ... -Bring-About-Global-Governance
Published: Jul 11, 2009
Author: Marc Morano
Post Date: 2009-07-11 09:29:02 by christine
Keywords: None
Views: 1304
Comments: 135

Former Vice President Al Gore declared that the Congressional climate bill will help bring about “global governance.”

“I bring you good news from the U.S., “Gore said on July 7, 2009 in Oxford at the Smith School World Forum on Enterprise and the Environment, sponsored by UK Times.

“Just two weeks ago, the House of Representatives passed the Waxman-Markey climate bill,” Gore said, noting it was “very much a step in the right direction.” President Obama has pushed for the passage of the bill in the Senate and attended a G8 summit this week where he agreed to attempt to keep the Earth's temperatures from rising more than 2 degrees C.

Gore touted the Congressional climate bill, claiming it “will dramatically increase the prospects for success” in combating what he sees as the “crisis” of man-made global warming.

“But it is the awareness itself that will drive the change and one of the ways it will drive the change is through global governance and global agreements.” (Editor's Note: Gore makes the “global governance” comment at the 1min. 10 sec. mark in this UK Times video.)

Gore's call for “global governance” echoes former French President Jacques Chirac's call in 2000.

On November 20, 2000, then French President Chirac said during a speech at The Hague that the UN's Kyoto Protocol represented "the first component of an authentic global governance."

“For the first time, humanity is instituting a genuine instrument of global governance,” Chirac explained. “From the very earliest age, we should make environmental awareness a major theme of education and a major theme of political debate, until respect for the environment comes to be as fundamental as safeguarding our rights and freedoms. By acting together, by building this unprecedented instrument, the first component of an authentic global governance, we are working for dialogue and peace,” Chirac added.

Former EU Environment Minister Margot Wallstrom said, "Kyoto is about the economy, about leveling the playing field for big businesses worldwide." Canadian Prime Minster Stephen Harper once dismissed UN's Kyoto Protocol as a “socialist scheme.”

'Global Carbon Tax' Urged at UN Meeting

In addition, calls for a global carbon tax have been urged at recent UN global warming conferences. In December 2007, the UN climate conference in Bali, urged the adoption of a global carbon tax that would represent “a global burden sharing system, fair, with solidarity, and legally binding to all nations.”

“Finally someone will pay for these [climate related] costs,” Othmar Schwank, a global tax advocate, said at the 2007 UN conference after a panel titled “A Global CO2 Tax.”

Schwank noted that wealthy nations like the U.S. would bear the biggest burden based on the “polluters pay principle.” The U.S. and other wealthy nations need to “contribute significantly more to this global fund,” Schwank explained. He also added, “It is very essential to tax coal.”

The 2007 UN conference was presented with a report from the Swiss Federal Office for the Environment titled “Global Solidarity in Financing Adaptation.” The report stated there was an “urgent need” for a global tax in order for “damages [from climate change] to be kept from growing to truly catastrophic levels, especially in vulnerable countries of the developing world.”

The tens of billions of dollars per year generated by a global tax would “flow into a global Multilateral Adaptation Fund” to help nations cope with global warming, according to the report.

Schwank said a global carbon dioxide tax is an idea long overdue that is urgently needed to establish “a funding scheme which generates the resources required to address the dimension of challenge with regard to climate change costs.”

'Redistribution of wealth'

The environmental group Friends of the Earth advocated the transfer of money from rich to poor nations during the 2007 UN climate conference.

"A climate change response must have at its heart a redistribution of wealth and resources,” said Emma Brindal, a climate justice campaigner coordinator for Friends of the Earth.

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Begin Trace Mode for Comment # 35.

#1. To: christine (#0)

IT was this AGW mess that made me realize people were right about the shadow government and NWO.

farmfriend  posted on  2009-07-11   12:05:13 ET  Reply   Untrace   Trace   Private Reply  


#2. To: farmfriend (#1)

So Al Gore is the single mantra, drum beater dancing in the streets that made you realize that something was wrong in America?

grace_is_by_our_lord  posted on  2009-07-11   12:14:20 ET  Reply   Untrace   Trace   Private Reply  


#4. To: grace_is_by_our_lord (#2)

So Al Gore is the single mantra, drum beater dancing in the streets that made you realize that something was wrong in America?

Smart ass. No, it was the over all global push, and who was pushing, with no supporting science.

farmfriend  posted on  2009-07-11   12:19:54 ET  Reply   Untrace   Trace   Private Reply  


#8. To: farmfriend (#4)

No, it was the over all global push, and who was pushing, with no supporting science.

Actually, there is a lot of data to support global warming trends. I don't necessarily believe the major contributor based upon carbon emissions from human technology though. It there is a large number of inputs to the phenomena and human technology is easily modified to change our contributions without government intervention, much less some fantastic boon-dongle bureaucratic mess that is far removed from local geographical areas.

grace_is_by_our_lord  posted on  2009-07-11   12:30:09 ET  Reply   Untrace   Trace   Private Reply  


#15. To: grace_is_by_our_lord (#8)

Actually, there is a lot of data to support global warming trends. I don't necessarily believe the major contributor based upon carbon emissions from human technology though. It there is a large number of inputs to the phenomena and human technology is easily modified to change our contributions without government intervention, much less some fantastic boon-dongle bureaucratic mess that is far removed from local geographical areas.

Except that the science doesn't support that either. First, man's contributions are a drop in the bucket and thus irrelevant. That said, the assumption that an increase in carbon emission, anthropogenic or natural, is bad is also a false notion created by the global elite who wish to garner more control and establish the NWO. CO2 is at historic lows for the planet. An increase in CO2 is actually desired, not only for man's benefit but for plants which are a main driving factor in the food chain. There is some anecdotal evidence that the increase in world food production is due to the increase in atmospheric CO2. History has proven that warm periods are beneficial to human culture and growth. The scientific evidence also shows that CO2 increases follow warming.

farmfriend  posted on  2009-07-11   14:15:22 ET  Reply   Untrace   Trace   Private Reply  


#19. To: farmfriend (#15)

CO2 is at historic lows for the planet.

Cough, spit and BS. Ever see the amazing benefits about American industry (uses about 25% of all non renewable energy from around the world) hoovering over major population centers? Smog was rampant through the 40s - 70s in America.

Today, smog is decreasing but it is still prevalent in the atmosphere. It is composed largely of CO2 which is a major by-product of energy use, particularly with carbon based fuels such as oil and gasoline. Smog pollution has been identified by most as particulate matter suspended in the release of CO2 emissions; but smog is really CO2.

Ever since the belching plumbs, as by the Iron Horses, of smoke during the early days of the industrial revolution since the mid 1800s, CO2 has been steadily increasing.

grace_is_by_our_lord  posted on  2009-07-11   14:50:20 ET  Reply   Untrace   Trace   Private Reply  


#25. To: grace_is_by_our_lord (#19)

Cough, spit and BS. Ever see the amazing benefits about American industry (uses about 25% of all non renewable energy from around the world) hoovering over major population centers? Smog was rampant through the 40s - 70s in America.

Today, smog is decreasing but it is still prevalent in the atmosphere. It is composed largely of CO2 which is a major by-product of energy use, particularly with carbon based fuels such as oil and gasoline. Smog pollution has been identified by most as particulate matter suspended in the release of CO2 emissions; but smog is really CO2.

Ever since the belching plumbs, as by the Iron Horses, of smoke during the early days of the industrial revolution since the mid 1800s, CO2 has been steadily increasing.

Ah my dear, you need to stop drinking that Kool-Aide and learn the real facts and history of CO2. BTW, there is one country that has bypassed the US in CO2 production and the US had less growth in emissions than all the countries who signed and implemented Kyoto.

I'll get you hooked up with the science if you wish. My knowledge and access has grown since our days of posting at LP.

farmfriend  posted on  2009-07-11   16:07:04 ET  Reply   Untrace   Trace   Private Reply  


#29. To: farmfriend (#25)

Ah my dear

I am flattered by your personal compliment hugging me.

The rates of human consumption stripping the environment for energy and food and other resources is unsustainable. Governments can't sustain the lack of resources around the world by legislation. And believing in an infinite playground unfettered by 6.7Bn people on the planet isn't either.

For America to get back on track about the nation is to diminish personal energy consumption and forget this crazy idea of unsustainable growth rates which has destroyed America's quality of life.

grace_is_by_our_lord  posted on  2009-07-11   16:45:57 ET  Reply   Untrace   Trace   Private Reply  


#30. To: grace_is_by_our_lord (#29)

For America to get back on track about the nation is to diminish personal energy consumption

Why? What is it about diminishing personal energy consumption do you think would help the situation? CO2 production is a benefit to both humans AND the environment. How is changing that going to help?

farmfriend  posted on  2009-07-11   16:50:29 ET  Reply   Untrace   Trace   Private Reply  


#32. To: farmfriend (#30)

I thought OXYGEN was a benefit to mankind. What makes you think CARBON_DIOXIDE is? When you breathe the in the aire around you take in OXYGEN. When you exhale, you remove CARBON_DIOXIDE.

And there is only a limited amount of resources; certainly natural ones such as food and the environment around us. CO2 has shown on a consistent basis to make agricultural products low in vitamins and nutrients; yet within oxygenated environments agricultural products have shown large manifestations of the same nutrients in wheat, corn and certainly fruits and other vegetables.

grace_is_by_our_lord  posted on  2009-07-11   17:02:15 ET  Reply   Untrace   Trace   Private Reply  


#33. To: grace_is_by_our_lord (#32) (Edited)

What makes you think CARBON_DIOXIDE is?

The human mind works better at higher CO2 concentrations thus our military subs keep the concentrations higher for performance reasons. Greenhouses keep CO2 at 1000 ppmv.

CO2 has shown on a consistent basis to make agricultural products low in vitamins and nutrients; yet within oxygenated environments agricultural products have shown large manifestations of the same nutrients in wheat, corn and certainly fruits and other vegetables.

I think you'll have to back that one up, please.

farmfriend  posted on  2009-07-11   17:13:38 ET  Reply   Untrace   Trace   Private Reply  


#35. To: farmfriend (#33)

SCOPE 56 - Global Change: Effects on Coniferous Forests and Grasslands, Chapter 9, Elevated Carbon DioxideHere is two:

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SCOPE 56 - Global Change: Effects on Coniferous Forests and Grasslands

9

Elevated Carbon Dioxide, Litter Quality and Decomposition

J. M. MELILLO
The Ecosystems Center, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, USA

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Plant litter decomposition is one of the important biogeochemical processes that could be affected by these aspects of global change. One long-standing hypothesis in the global-change literature is that elevated CO2 will result in the production of plant litter with wide carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratios and perhaps elevated concentrations of structural compounds such as cellulose and lignin (Melillo 1983; Strain and Bazzaz 1983; Melillo et al. 1990). In addition, this 'nitrogen- poor', litter that is enriched in structural compounds will decompose slowly. The slowed decomposition will, in turn, reduce nutrient cycling rates and, in the long term, will diminish the plants' ability to respond to elevated CO2 in a classic negative feedback.

9.2 FACTORS THAT CONTROL LITTER DECOMPOSITION RATE 

More than a half century ago, Tenney and Waksman (1929) developed a 'short list' of factors they considered primarily responsible for controlling the rate of plant litter decay. Included in the list were substrate quality and climate. Research on decomposition processes since then has supported their choices.

Indexes of substrate quality include element concentrations and concentrations of various classes of organic compounds. A high correlation between initial nitrogen concentration and decomposition rate has been demonstrated by a number of researchers (e.g. Bal 1922; Hill 1926; Waksman and Tenney 1928; Waksman and Gerretsen 1931; Monnier and Jeanson 1964; Satchell and Lowe 1966; Witkamp 1966; Cowling and Merrill 1966; Kaushik and Hynes 1971; Harrison and Mann 1975; and Taylor et al. 1989). Litter mass loss has also been correlated with initial lignin concentration (e.g. Cromack 1973; Cromack and Monk 1975; Fogel and Cromack 1977; Berg and McClaugherty 1987; Aber et al. 1991). In some studies, the initial lignin to nitrogen ratio has been shown to be  the best predictor of plant litter decay rate (e.g. Melillo et al. 1982; Aber and Melillo 1982; Melillo et al. 1984). In an attempt to unify these various interpretations of what component of initial chemistry of litter controls its decay rate, Taylor et al. (1989) have proposed a two-phase exponential model, in which initial nitrogen content controls decomposition rate early in the decay sequence, while lignin is the controlling factor later in decay.

Climate regime, including both temperature and moisture, is also an important controller of decay rate. In well-drained grasslands and coniferous forests, the general rule is the warmer and wetter the site, the more rapid the litter decay rate (e.g. Meentemeyer 1978). Many models of plant litter decomposition have integrated climate and litter quality controls on litter decay rate (Bunnell et al. 1977a, b; Meentemeyer 1978; Parton et al. 1987; Rastetter et al. 1992).

9.3 CARBON DIOXIDE ENRICHMENT AND PLANT LITTER QUALITY  

Changes in litter quality may be induced by an increased level of atmospheric CO2. Observed litter quality changes include a reduction in nitrogen concentration and, in a few cases, increases in lignin concentration. A reduction in nitrogen concentration in leaf litter has often been found in CO2 enrichment experiments with trees (e.g. Melillo 1983; Norby et al. 1986; O'Neil et al. 1987; Lux moore et al. 1986; Brown 1991; Kohen et al. 1992; Boerner and Rebbeck 1993; Johnson 1993; Cotrufo et al. 1994) and with grasses (e.g. Overdieck and Reining 1986; Larigauderie et al. 1988). Most of the experiments involving trees are with deciduous species because the deciduous tree experiments require much less time to conduct than experiments with coniferous species. In CO2-enrichment research designed to study the litter-quality issue, it is important that leaves or needles be permitted to senesce naturally so that the process of nitrogen reabsorption can occur prior to abscission. In conifers as much as 50% of the nitrogen in green needles may be reabsorbed (e.g. Prescott et al. 1989). Time to natural abscission is several years for conifers, while it is less than a year for deciduous species. Carbon dioxide experiments in which needle senescence and abscission are induced by drying or some other technique, limit nitrogen reabsorption and so mask any reduction in nitrogen concentration in litter. For example, in their CO2-enrichment study Cotrufo et al. (1994) observed that the nitrogen concentration in spruce needles litter was very high, and unlike the deciduous species studied. They suggested that the reason for this difference was related to the fact that the deciduous species were allowed to abscise naturally, while the spruce needle litter was obtained by forced drying.

Even when the experimental artifact of induced senescence and abscission is avoided, the nitrogen concentration in the litter of nonwoody plants does not always appear to decrease under elevated CO2 or decreases only slightly. Results indicating no increases or slight decreases have been reported for a salt marsh (Curtis et al. 1989) and a tall grass prairie (Kemp et al. 1994).

Table 9.1 Initial litter chemistry (%)


Nitrogen level (relative):

High
Low




CO2 level (ppmv):
Species

Element/ compound
350
700

350
700


Ash

N

Lignin

1.01

10.67

0.64

10.63

0.43

7.09

0.45

6.83

G. birch

N

Lignin

0.51

13.24

0.39

12.60

0.34

10.91

0.40

11.49

Oak

N

Lignin

1.12

17.54

0.50

16.58

0.44

14.50

0.46

14.16

R. maple

N

Lignin

0.59

8.12

0.41

11.47

0.34

6.35

0.31

9.33

S. maple

N

Lignin

0.94

9.34

0.56

11.17

0.90

11.13

0.60

8.43

Y. birch

N

Lignin

1.03

12.94

0.63

12.62

0.58

10.37

0.51

10.97


The circumstances under which plants produce nitrogen-depleted litter upon exposure to elevated CO2 are not well defined. One argument is that in nitrogen-deficient soils, plants exposed to elevated CO2 will change their nitrogen-use efficiencies (plants will incorporate more carbon into plant tissue per unit nitrogen incorporated) and that this change will persist in the litter (Norby et al 1986; O'Neil et al. 1987). There is evidence, however, that decreased nitrogen concentration can occur in plant material exposed to elevation CO2 at both low and high levels of soil nutrition (Cotrufo et al 1994).

There are several reports of an increase in lignin concentration in litter from plants grown in high CO2 atmospheres. These increases are usually only a few percent (Melillo 1983; Boerner and Rebbeck 1993; and Cotrufo et al 1994). In contrast, Norby et al. (1986) found a decrease in leaf-litter lignin from oak seedlings grown in elevated CO2. In this experiment, the lignin concentrations of both the 'treated' and 'control' plants were unusually low for leaf litter of an oak species, perhaps because the leaves were from very small seedlings. In a CO2-enrichment experiment I conducted with Bazzaz and his students at Harvard, we found small changes (positive and negative) in leaf litter lignin concentrations depending on species and treatment (Table 9.1).

In summary, there is widespread experimental evidence for a reduction in nitrogen concentration of litter from plants grown in an enriched CO2 environment. The evidence for changes in lignin content is not as clear-cut. The nitrogen changes imply reductions in litter decay rates. There is a small amount of experimental evidence from laboratory and field decomposition studies that  supports the notion of reduced decay rates following CO2-induced litter quality changes. This evidence is reviewed next.

9.4 DECAY OF LITTER FROM PLANTS GROWN IN A CO2-ENRICHED ENVIRONMENT  

I know of five decomposition studies that have followed the decay rate of litter from plants grown in a CO2-enriched environment. Three are laboratory studies and two are field studies. One of the laboratory studies (Boerner and Rebbeck 1993) combined effects of elevated ozone twice and CO2 on the litter quality of Tulip poplar (Lircodendron tulipifer L.). The litter was then decayed in laboratory tanks that were continuously stirred. The effect of CO2 enrichment on litter quality was about a 30% reduction in nitrogen concentration and a large ( ~ 2.5 x) increase in the lignin to nitrogen ratio. Over the course of the first year of the study, decay rate was much lower in the treated litter than in the control one.

Another laboratory decay study was done in soil-free microcosms, where Cotrufo et al. (1994) used three deciduous litter types (ash, Froximas excelsior L.; birch, Betula pubescens Ehrb.; and Acer pseudoplatanus L.) and one coniferous species (spruce, Picea sitchensis (Beng.) Carr.). The plants were grown under both treated (600 ppmv CO2) and control (300 ppmv CO2) conditions. In the decomposition part of the study, Cotrufo et al. found a significant decrease in respiration and decomposition rates in the litter materials from the treated (CO2-enriched) plants.

The above two sets of laboratory results are in agreement with those found by Cofiteaux et al. (1991) for litter from chestnut seedlings grown in elevated CO2. When the litter was incubated in the laboratory with only microflora and protozoa, the litter from plants grown at elevated CO2 decayed slower than did the litter from plants grown at ambient CO2. When Cofiteaux et al. added a more complex fauna, total carbon loss was actually increased for CO2-enriched litter above the litter produced at ambient CO2. These latter results are difficult to interpret, but they do highlight the need for experiments investigating litter decomposition under field conditions.

In a field decomposition study in tall grass prairie, Kemp et al. (1994) found that litter from plants grown at elevated CO2 decomposed at about the same rate as litter grown at ambient CO2. The grass species studied were Andropogon gerardii, Sorghostum mutans, and Poa pratensis.

I have worked with Bazzaz and his students on a field decomposition study at the Harvard Forest. We used litter from six species of deciduous plants grown in full light, at either high or low nitrogen availability, and at either ambient (350 ppmv) or doubled (700 ppmv) CO2. Litter from each of the various combinations of treatments was incubated in mesh bags placed on the floor of a deciduous forest site. After one year of decay in the field, we found that within a nutrient treatment, litter materials from plants grown at elevated CO2 generally had lower decay rates than those grown at ambient CO2. The magnitude of the effect varied among species and there were a few exceptions to the general trend (Table 9.2).

Table 9.2 Observed decay rate at 1 year

Nitrogen level (relative):
High

Low



CO2 level (ppmv):
Species

350

Decay rate

700

(-k)

350

700


Ash
0.77

0.350.930.80
Grey birch

0.73
0.540.901.03

Oak
0.41
0.41

0.350.24
Red maple

0.78

0.470.600.61
Stripped maple

0.72
0.450.940.74

Yellow birch
0.87
0.41

0.950.65

9.5 WARMING AND DECOMPOSITION RATE  

If warming accompanies increases an atmospheric CO2, the temperature increase, which is likely to increase decay rate, may offset the negative feedbacks to plants associated with the CO2-induced decrease in litter quality. At the Harvard Forest, my colleagues and I have conducted a soil warming experiment to determine the potential effects of this aspect of climate change on soil organic matter decay and on nitrogen availability.

Results from the first year of study (July 1991 through June 1992) at the Harvard Forest soil warming experiment indicated that heating increased emission of CO2 and nitrogen mineralization. We estimated CO2 fluxes to be approximately 7100,7900, and 11100 kg C ha-1 yr-1in the control, disturbance control, and heated plots, respectively; this represents an increase due to warming of approximately 3200 kg C ha-1 yr-l. Nitrogen mineralization was doubled in the forest floor plus the top 10 cm of the mineral soil. During the first growing season, we observed that in the forest floor, heating increased the average net mineralization rates from 1.02 to 2.47 mg N kg-1 d-1. In the mineral soil, heating increased the average net mineralization rates from 0.09 to 0.19 mg N kg-1 d-1. No nitrification was observed in either forest floor or the mineral soil in any of the treatments.

Results from the second year of study (July 1992 through June 1993) indicated that warming had a much less dramatic effect on CO2 flux, but a sustained dramatic effect on nitrogen mineralization. We estimated CO2 fluxes in the second year to be approximately 6800, 7600, and 8700 kg C ha-1 for control, disturbed control and heated treatments, respectively. Nitrogen mineralization rates remained doubled. Again, no nitrification was observed in either the forest floor or the mineral soil.

One interpretation of the differences in the CO2 response (heated versus disturbed control) between the first and second years versus the constant response in nitrogen mineralization is as follows:

(a) there are two major soil organic matter (SOM) pools a fast and a slow pool; 

(b) the fast pool contains high C:N ratio material (e.g. recent litter) the decay of fast pool material results in large CO2 losses per unit of material processed and small net nitrogen release in the mineralization process;

(c) the slow pool contains low C:N ratio material (e.g. metastable humus) the decay of the slow pool material results in a smaller loss of CO2 per unit of material processed and large net nitrogen release in the mineralization process. As elevated soil temperature increases the rate of decay in the slow pool, both carbon (as CO2) and nitrogen (as inorganic N) are released. The nitrogen then becomes available to be taken up by plants. Since the C:N ratio of plant material is substantially larger than the C:N ratio of SOM in the slow pool, warming may lead to increased carbon storage in the ecosystem. The magnitude of such an increase would, of course, depend on how plant carbon balance is affected by other components of climate change including the availability of water and the effect of increased temperature on both photosynthesis and respiration.

9.6 REFERENCES

Aber, J. D. and Melillo, J. M. (1982) Nitrogen immobilization in decaying hardwood litter as a function of initial nitrogen and lignin content. Can. J. Bot. 60,2263-2269.

Aber,J. D., Melillo, J. M. and McClaugherty, C. A. (1991) Predicting long-term patterns of mass-loss, nitrogen dynamics and soil organic matter formation from initial litter chemistry in forest ecosystems. Can. J. Bot. 68,2201-2208.

Bal, D. V. ( 1922) Studies on the decomposition of some common green manuring plants at different stages of growth in the black cotton soil of Central Provinces. Agr. J.lndia 17, 133-155.

Berg, B. and McClaugherty, C. (1987) Nitrogen release from litter in relation to the disappearance of lignin. Biogeochemistry 4,219-224.

Boerner, R. E. J. and Rebbeck, J. (1993) Decomposition of hardwood leaves growth under elevated 03 and/or CO2. Bull. Ecol. Soc. Am. (Suppl.) 74, 166.

Brown, K. R. (1991) Carbon dioxide enrichment accelerates the decline in nutrients relative growth rate of Populus tremuloides Michx. seedlings. Tree Physiol. 8, 161-173.

Bunnell, F. L., Tart, D. E. N., Flanagan, P. W. and van Cleve, K. (1977a) Microbial respiration and substrate weight loss. I. Soil Bioi. Biochem. 9, 33-40.

Bunnell, F. L., Tart, D. E. N., Flanagan, P. W. and van Cleve, K. (1977b) Microbial respiration and substrate weight loss. II. Soil Bioi. Biochem. 9,41-47.

Cotrufo, M. F., Ineson, P. and Rowland, A. P. (1994) Decomposition of tree leaf litters grown under elevated CO2: effect of litter quality. Plant and Soi1163, 121-130.

 Couteaûx, M.-M., Mousseau, M., Celerier, M. -L. and Bottner, P. (1991) Increased atmospheric CO2 and litter quality: decomposition of sweet chestnut leaf litter with animal food webs of different complexities. Oikos 61, 54-64.

Cowling, E. B. and Merrill, W. (1966) Nitrogen in wood and its role in wood deterioration. Can. J. Bot. 44, 1539-1554.

Cromack, K., Jr (1973) Litter production and litter decomposition in a mixed hardwood watershed and in a white pine watershed at Coweeta Hydrologic Station, North Carolina. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Georgia, Athens.

Cromack, K., Jr and Monk, C. D. (1975) Litter production, decomposition, and nutrient cycling in a mixed hardwood watershed and white pine watershed. In: Howell, F. G., Gentry, J. B. and. Smith, M. H. (Eds) Mineral Cycling in Southeastern Ecosystems, pp.609-624. US Energy Research and Development Admin. Symposium Series, CONF- 740613, Washington, DC.

Curtis,P. S., Drake, B. G. and Whigham,D. F.(1989) Nitrogen and carbon dynamics in C3 and C4 estuarine marsh plants growth under elevated CO2 in situ. Oecologia 78,297-301.

Fogel, R., and Cromack, K.Jr(1977) Effects of habitat and substrate quality on Douglas fir litter decomposition in western Oregon. Can. J. Bot. 55, 1632-1640.

Harrison, P. G. and Mann, K. H. (1975) Detritus formation from eel grass (Zostera marina L.): the relative effects of fragmentation, leaching and decay. Limnol. Oceanogr. 20, 924-934.

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The electronic version of this publication has been prepared at
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